The Aryans & The Vedic Age (1500–600 BCE) | UPSC / SSC / GS Notes

Aryan means “noble” or “of high birth”. Veda means “knowledge” (hymns + mantras). The arrival of the Aryans in India marks the beginning of the Vedic Age, known for the composition of the Vedas — the earliest literature of India.

Who were the Aryans?

Migrated from Central Asia (2000–1500 BCE)
Settled in Afghanistan → Punjab → Western Uttar Pradesh
Region called Sapta-Sindhu (Land of Seven Rivers)
Spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language
Initially nomadic cattle herders → later settled agriculture

Phases of Vedic Age

Period	Timeline	Key Features
Early (Rigvedic)	1500–1000 BCE	Pastoral economy, NW India
Later Vedic	1000–600 BCE	Agriculture, rise of kingdoms

Migration & Settlement

Arrival in Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE
Cleared forests → agriculture + permanent villages
Use of spoked-wheel chariots → warfare advantage
Conquered indigenous Dravidian population
Discovery of iron in Ganga valley → rapid expansion

Language & Literature

Strong oral tradition → hymns memorized for centuries
Vedas composed between 1500–500 BCE, hence known as the Vedic Age
Script came much later → oral preservation ensured continuity

Early (Rigvedic) Period (1500–1000 BCE)

Geographical Knowledge

Known rivers: Sindhu (Indus), Saraswati, Yamuna, Ganga
Sea = Samudra
Himalayas = Himavat

Rivers Mentioned in Rigveda

Rig Vedic Name	Modern Name
Sindhu	Indus
Vitasta	Jhelum
Askini	Chenab
Parushni	Ravi
Vipas	Beas
Shutudri	Sutlej
Kubha	Kabul
Saraswati	Lost river

Economy (Rigvedic)

Mixed economy: Pastoral + Agriculture
Cow = standard unit of value
Gold objects: Nishka, Satmana
Wooden plough, ox-driven

Polity

Samiti: General tribal assembly (elected king)
Sabha: Council of elders
No permanent army → warriors from tribes

Social Structure

Society based on kinship; tribe = Jana
Settlements = Grama
Varna system started to form:
- Brahmins → Priests
- Kshatriyas → Warriors, rulers
- Vaishyas → Farmers, traders
- Shudras → Laborers

Religion (Rigvedic)

Natural elements worshipped
No temples → Yajnas in open

God	Role
Indra	God of rain & war (Purandara)
Agni	Fire god, messenger
Varuna	Cosmic order
Soma	Sacred plant & drink
Surya & Mitra	Solar deities
Rudra	God of animals
Yama	God of death

Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna)

Fought on River Parushni (Ravi)
Sudas of Bharatas defeated 10 tribes
Bharatas + Purus → formed Kuru tribe later

Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE)

The Later Vedic period is associated with the expansion of the Aryans from the Punjab region into the fertile Ganga–Yamuna Doab. It also marks the rise of large kingdoms and complex rituals.

Geography & Expansion

Expansion from Punjab to the Ganga valley.
Rivers like Narmada and Sadanira (Gandak) are mentioned.
India divided into:
- Aryavarta – Northern India
- Madhyadesh – Central region
- Dakshinapatha – Southern route

Polity in Later Vedic Age

Rise of large kingdoms.
Kingship became hereditary in practice.
Assemblies (Sabha & Samiti) lost importance.
Vidhata (early tribal meeting) disappeared.
Women were no longer allowed to attend assemblies.
The term Rashtra (territory) appears for the first time.
Taittiriya Brahmana speaks of the divine origin of kingship.
Satapatha Brahmana mentions the twelve Ratnins (royal officials).

Twelve Ratnins (Royal Functionaries)

Office	Role
Purohita	Chief priest
Mahishi	Chief queen
Yuvaraja	Crown prince
Suta	Royal charioteer / herald
Bhagadugha	Tax collector
Akshavapa	Accountant
Palagala	Royal companion / messenger
Govikarta	Head of cattle & forest department
Senani	Commander of the army
Gramani	Village headman
Kshapati / Kshatri	Gatekeeper / law & order
Sangrahitri	Treasurer

Society in Later Vedic Period

The four-fold varna system became more rigid.
Brahmins gained power due to complex rituals and sacrifices.
Kshatriyas remained the ruling and warrior class.
Vaishyas engaged in agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and crafts.
Shudras were placed at the lowest rank, meant to serve the upper three varnas.
The Ashrama system (four stages of life) was introduced:
- Brahmacharya – student life
- Grihastha – householder
- Vanaprastha – forest dweller
- Sannyasa – renunciation
Position of women declined:
- No participation in assemblies
- Pratiloma marriage (higher varna woman marrying lower varna man) was not allowed

Economy in Later Vedic Age

Agriculture became the main occupation.
Main crops: rice, wheat, barley, beans, sesame.
Use of iron increased → better tools → more forest clearing and farm expansion.
Metals like tin, silver and iron were known and used.

Religion in Later Vedic Age

Rituals and sacrifices became more elaborate and expensive.
Prajapati emerged as the supreme creator god.
Vishnu was now conceived as the protector and preserver.
Pushan, originally associated with cattle and roads, became linked with Shudras.
People began questioning excessive ritualism → seed of Upanishadic thought.

Vedic Literature

The word Veda comes from the root vid, meaning “to know”. The Vedas are considered Shruti (that which is heard) and are the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.

Classification of Vedic Texts

Shruti – “that which is heard” (most sacred):
- Vedas (Samhitas)
- Brahmanas
- Aranyakas
- Upanishads
Smriti – “that which is remembered”:
- Sutras
- Puranas
- Epics (Ramayana & Mahabharata)
- Dharma Shastras etc.

The Four Vedas (Samhitas)

Rigveda

Oldest Veda; one of the oldest religious texts in the world.
Contains 1028 hymns arranged into 10 Mandalas.
Mandalas II–VII: Family books (Gritsamada, Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, Vasistha).
VIII Mandala: attributed to the Kanvas and Angirasas.
IX Mandala: hymns dedicated to Soma.
X Mandala: contains the famous Purusha Sukta, explaining the origin of four varnas.
III Mandala: contains the Gayatri Mantra, in praise of the Sun God Savitri.

Samaveda

Derived from saman meaning “melody”.
Collection of hymns meant to be sung at sacrifices.
Priest called Udgatri chanted Samaveda hymns.
Basis for later Indian classical music traditions.

Yajurveda

Deals with ritual formulas and procedures for sacrifices.
Two main recensions:
- Shukla (White) Yajurveda
- Krishna (Black) Yajurveda

Atharvaveda

Contains spells, charms, prayers to ward off evil and disease.
Preserves many beliefs and practices of common people.

Brahmanas

Prose commentaries on the Vedic hymns.
Explain the meaning of rituals and sacrifices.
Highly ritualistic and orthodox in nature.

Aranyakas

“Forest texts” – taught by sages living in forests.
Bridge between Brahmanas (ritual) and Upanishads (philosophy).
More meditative and symbolic interpretation of rituals.

Upanishads

Term literally means “sitting near the teacher”.
Also called Vedanta – “end of the Vedas”.
Philosophical texts explaining:
- Atman (soul)
- Brahman (universal soul)
- Karma (action)
- Moksha (liberation)
About 108 Upanishads; around 11 are considered major (Mukhya Upanishads).
Main period: 800–500 BCE.

Vedangas (Limbs of the Vedas)

Shiksha – phonetics (pronunciation)
Kalpa – rituals and ceremonies
Vyakarana – grammar
Nirukta – etymology (word meanings)
Chhanda – metres
Jyotisha – astronomy and astrology

Upavedas

Ayurveda – science of medicine
Dhanurveda – art of warfare
Gandharvaveda – music and fine arts
Shastra/Shilpa – architecture & military technology (later texts)

Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (Shad-Darshanas)

Nyaya – Gautama
Vaisheshika – Kanada
Sankhya – Kapila
Yoga – Patanjali
Purva Mimamsa – Jaimini
Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) – Vyasa

Puranas

Contain myths, legends, genealogies, cosmology.
Reflect changes in modes of worship and temple-based deities.

Sutra Literature

Srauta Sutras – large public sacrifices.
Grihya Sutras – domestic rituals (birth, marriage, death).
Dharma Sutras – social laws, customs and duties.

The Epics: Ramayana & Mahabharata

Ramayana:
- Traditionally attributed to Valmiki.
- Originally ~6,000 verses, later expanded to ~24,000 verses.
Mahabharata:
- Attributed to Vyasa.
- Originally ~8,800 verses, later expanded to 24,000, and finally to about 100,000 verses.
- Considered the longest epic in the world.

Quick Revision: Early vs Later Vedic Age

Feature	Early (Rigvedic)	Later Vedic
Region	Punjab, Sapta-Sindhu (NW India)	Ganga–Yamuna Doab, Eastern India
Economy	Pastoral + small-scale agriculture	Mainly agriculture, iron tools widely used
Polity	Tribal chief, elected by Samiti	Large kingdoms, hereditary monarchy
Assemblies	Sabha & Samiti powerful	Assemblies lose importance
Society	Varna flexible, women had better status	Varna rigid, women’s position declined
Religion	Nature worship; Indra & Agni dominant	Ritualism increased; Prajapati, Vishnu more important
Literature	Rigveda composed	Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads developed

Conclusion

The Vedic Age (1500–600 BCE) marks a crucial phase in Indian history. The early Vedic period shows a semi-nomadic, tribal society with simple rituals and nature worship, while the later Vedic period reveals the growth of kingdoms, agriculture, social stratification and complex religious practices. The rich Vedic literature – especially the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Epics – shaped the religious, social and philosophical foundations of Indian civilization.

Aryan Migration Map Vedic Age Timeline Varna System Chart

These notes are prepared for students of General Studies, UPSC, SSC and other competitive exams.
– Team Planet Past

The Aryans & The Vedic Age